Overview |
The Middle East, as we know it today, was created out of the six-hundred year-old Ottoman Empire. The empire came to an end at the conclusion of World War I. This geography and history simulation examines why the Allied Powers drew the boundaries and divided the region as they did, with little understanding of the populations alienated or the political tensions created.
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Directions |
Read through the following accounts of the agreements and deals made by the European powers and Arab nationalists following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I. The drawing of new borders and creation of states was a very complex and difficult process. Many different cultural, religious and political groups were intermingled in the Ottoman Empire. As you read through the sources determine how your assigned group would react to the agreements being made on your "Fever Chart." Then we will discuss the consequences of the decisions made after World War I and the conflicts that still exist in the Middle East today as a result.
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The Middle East in the Era of World War I
![Picture](/uploads/1/2/2/0/12207396/published/ottoman-empire_2.jpg)
The Middle East was a region that had been dominated by the Ottoman Turks for over five centuries. At the height of its power in 1683, the Empire stretched from the Persian Gulf to western Algeria in Africa, from the outskirts of Vienna to the Aegean Sea. Even though it steadily shrank in size after 1683, the Ottoman Empire was still ruling or controlling a very large area in 1914.
The Ottoman Empire included: Anatolia, the area we now call Turkey; the fringes of the Arabian Peninsula; and the Fertile Crescent, which included Greater Syria and Mesopotamia
Greater Syria included the entire region along the Mediterranean coastline and extended south. It contained what is today Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. The region of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers was called Mesopotamia in 1 914. Even though the people who lived there called their region Iraq, the British and other Europeans of the period called it by its Greek name, Mesopotamia.
We will not be examining North Africa, Iran or Afghanistan in this study. Even though North Africa was officially part of the Ottoman Empire, North Africa had fallen under the control of the European powers. Iran (Persia) and Afghanistan were independent and not a part of the Ottoman Empire in 1914.
The Ottoman Empire included: Anatolia, the area we now call Turkey; the fringes of the Arabian Peninsula; and the Fertile Crescent, which included Greater Syria and Mesopotamia
Greater Syria included the entire region along the Mediterranean coastline and extended south. It contained what is today Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. The region of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers was called Mesopotamia in 1 914. Even though the people who lived there called their region Iraq, the British and other Europeans of the period called it by its Greek name, Mesopotamia.
We will not be examining North Africa, Iran or Afghanistan in this study. Even though North Africa was officially part of the Ottoman Empire, North Africa had fallen under the control of the European powers. Iran (Persia) and Afghanistan were independent and not a part of the Ottoman Empire in 1914.
Simulation: Round 1 |
The Husayn - McMahon Understandings
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![Picture](/uploads/1/2/2/0/12207396/published/sharif-husayn-cropped_2.jpg)
Background:
In World War I the Ottoman Empire had joined the side of the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungry, and Bulgaria) against the Allies (Great Britain, France, Russia, Romania and Italy). The British knew the only way they could protect India and their oil supplies in the Persian Gulf was by occupying Mesopotamia. Large quantities of oil had been discovered in southern Iran in 1908. (From 1904 on, the British had been converting their fleet from the use' of coal to oil for power.) It was believed that neighboring Mesopotamia was also rich in oil. A small expeditionary force had landed and occupied Basra in late 1914.
Arab nationalism was growing in Syria. At the outbreak of the war, one of the three top Committee of Union and Progress members (Young Turks) had been appointed governor and commander-in-chief of the Ottoman forces in Syria. The C.U.P. meantime had become aware of the large-scale Arab anti-Turkish activities. So, a secret emissary from the Arab nationalist societies in Syria had gone to Sharif Husayn of Mecca and the Hijaz. They assured Husayn that the Arabs of Syria would take part in a British-backed revolt against the Turks, if they could get Britain to support an independent Arab nation. “They would accept Husayn as a 'spokesman for the Arabs.”
Sharif Husayn decided to bargain with the British, and in July 1915 the correspondence with McMahon began. Husayn also tried to get the opinions of the leading Arabs in the Arabian Peninsula outside of the Hijaz. Ibn Saud in the Najd was willing to support the British. They had already thrown off Ottoman rule in 1915. Ibn Rashid of the Shammar region was an arch enemy of Ibn Saud over control of the Najd. Rashid was pro-Ottoman, as was the chieftain of Asir.
Meantime, the C.U.P. governor in Syria seized prominent Arab civilians, charged them with treason because of some incriminating documents, and promptly executed eleven in August 1915. Twenty-one more were executed in January 191 E>. A large Turkish-German force was about to leave Syria for Mecca, via the railway, on its way to Yemen, to link up with the Turkish units there. The Husayn-McMahon correspondence had reached some 'understanding' but non on Syria. Because Husayn had to act, he had to put the negotiations with Britain about the area west of Syria “on hold.”
Husayn now raised the banner of revolt by symbolically firing a rifle at the Turkish barracks in Ml3cca. First Mecca, then Jidda fell to the rebels. In October 1916, the British arrived from Cairo bringing with them 'Lawrence of Arabia.' Lawrence used Faysal, the third son of Husayn, as the acknowledged leader of the revolt. Faysal's forces advanced into Palestine with the British. Together they kept the Turkish-German forces in Syria from linking up with the Turkish garrison in Yemen. And, thus began the legend of Lawrence of Arabia.
In November 1916, Sharif Husayn was declared 'King of the Arab Countries' by his followers. The French Allies refused to recognize him because they did not want a Hashimite leader from Arabia to be king of Syrian Arabs. They had other things in mind for Syria. A compromise was reached in January 1917. Both Britain and France recognized Husayn as King of the Hijaz. It is now Spring 1917. How do you react to the Husayn-McMahon Understanding?
In World War I the Ottoman Empire had joined the side of the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungry, and Bulgaria) against the Allies (Great Britain, France, Russia, Romania and Italy). The British knew the only way they could protect India and their oil supplies in the Persian Gulf was by occupying Mesopotamia. Large quantities of oil had been discovered in southern Iran in 1908. (From 1904 on, the British had been converting their fleet from the use' of coal to oil for power.) It was believed that neighboring Mesopotamia was also rich in oil. A small expeditionary force had landed and occupied Basra in late 1914.
Arab nationalism was growing in Syria. At the outbreak of the war, one of the three top Committee of Union and Progress members (Young Turks) had been appointed governor and commander-in-chief of the Ottoman forces in Syria. The C.U.P. meantime had become aware of the large-scale Arab anti-Turkish activities. So, a secret emissary from the Arab nationalist societies in Syria had gone to Sharif Husayn of Mecca and the Hijaz. They assured Husayn that the Arabs of Syria would take part in a British-backed revolt against the Turks, if they could get Britain to support an independent Arab nation. “They would accept Husayn as a 'spokesman for the Arabs.”
Sharif Husayn decided to bargain with the British, and in July 1915 the correspondence with McMahon began. Husayn also tried to get the opinions of the leading Arabs in the Arabian Peninsula outside of the Hijaz. Ibn Saud in the Najd was willing to support the British. They had already thrown off Ottoman rule in 1915. Ibn Rashid of the Shammar region was an arch enemy of Ibn Saud over control of the Najd. Rashid was pro-Ottoman, as was the chieftain of Asir.
Meantime, the C.U.P. governor in Syria seized prominent Arab civilians, charged them with treason because of some incriminating documents, and promptly executed eleven in August 1915. Twenty-one more were executed in January 191 E>. A large Turkish-German force was about to leave Syria for Mecca, via the railway, on its way to Yemen, to link up with the Turkish units there. The Husayn-McMahon correspondence had reached some 'understanding' but non on Syria. Because Husayn had to act, he had to put the negotiations with Britain about the area west of Syria “on hold.”
Husayn now raised the banner of revolt by symbolically firing a rifle at the Turkish barracks in Ml3cca. First Mecca, then Jidda fell to the rebels. In October 1916, the British arrived from Cairo bringing with them 'Lawrence of Arabia.' Lawrence used Faysal, the third son of Husayn, as the acknowledged leader of the revolt. Faysal's forces advanced into Palestine with the British. Together they kept the Turkish-German forces in Syria from linking up with the Turkish garrison in Yemen. And, thus began the legend of Lawrence of Arabia.
In November 1916, Sharif Husayn was declared 'King of the Arab Countries' by his followers. The French Allies refused to recognize him because they did not want a Hashimite leader from Arabia to be king of Syrian Arabs. They had other things in mind for Syria. A compromise was reached in January 1917. Both Britain and France recognized Husayn as King of the Hijaz. It is now Spring 1917. How do you react to the Husayn-McMahon Understanding?
Husayn-McMahon Understanding (July 1915 - January 1916)
Britain pledged support to Husayn for an independent Arab nation, in exchange for an Arab revolt against: the Ottoman Turks. A series of letters were written between British Sir Henry McMahon and Sharif Husayn of the Hijaz in 1915 to 1916. These letters resulted in an 'understanding' and an Arab revolt against the Turks. Britain wanted to protect its interests in the region during and after the war. Husayn wanted British help in creating an independent Arab nation.
Also, it left out the Persian Gulf region where there were existing British treaties with Arab chiefs. The British also excluded the Baghdad and Basra regions because of a war-time need to protect oil Sources.
Husayn accepted the revisions regarding Mersin and Alexandretta; he agreed to a short British occupation of Baghdad and Basra; he did not agree to the modifications regarding Syria, west of the line from Damascus to Aleppo. He never accepted nor rejected the Syria west modification but put the issue on hold
- Husayn proposed British support for creation of an area that would be an independent Arab nation; it would include all of what is now Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Jordan, and all of the Arabian Peninsula except for Aden, a British colony
- The British agreed to the proposals but with crucial revisions: 'The district of Mersin and Alexanclretta (Hatay), and portions of Syria lying to the West of the districts of Damascus, Homs, Haml and Aleppo, cannot D' said to be purely Arab,' and had to be left out of the independent Arab nation.
Also, it left out the Persian Gulf region where there were existing British treaties with Arab chiefs. The British also excluded the Baghdad and Basra regions because of a war-time need to protect oil Sources.
Husayn accepted the revisions regarding Mersin and Alexandretta; he agreed to a short British occupation of Baghdad and Basra; he did not agree to the modifications regarding Syria, west of the line from Damascus to Aleppo. He never accepted nor rejected the Syria west modification but put the issue on hold
Simulation: Round 2 |
The Balfour Declaration & Sykes-Picot Agreement
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Background:
The Balfour Declaration:
At the time the Balfour Declaration was issued, Palestine or the Holy Land, was not a geographically or politically defined region. The Ottoman government had not organized it as .a separate unit for administrative purposes, within the empire. Palestine included territory vaguely understood to be south of Damascus and northeast from the Sinai Peninsula, including what is today known as Israel and Jordan. Boundaries between Palestine and Arabia were also vague.
Based on a British census estimate in 1918, the constant inhabitants of Palestine were 700,000 Arabs and 56,000 Jews. (30) The Jews mainly lived in Jerusalem. Some were, from families that had existed there since before the Diaspora (scattering) and after the last desperate revolt against the Romans in 135 CE Some had remained after the Babylonia Captivity in the 7th century B.C., when the King of Judea and many of his followers were captured and taken to Babylonia.
But many of the 700,000 Arabs claimed that their families had lived in Jerusalem and Palestine since before the time of Moses. They claimed they were there when Moses led the .Jews out of bondage in Egypt and came into this 'promised land.'
After Jews had been scattered, because of the' Diaspora, they found new homes along with new forms of persecution. Over 600,000 had fled to the United States after massacres in Russia and had succeeded in establishing rich and influential communities. Even so, many German or Russian Jewish writers believed the only true security for Jews was a homeland where the culture, religion, language, and physical safety could be insured. That was to be Palestine. The British government supported these efforts of these influential Jews for many reasons. One was tor reasons of national security. A Jewish Palestine, supported by Britain, would act as a guard for the Suez Canal, the British life-line 'to its colonies in the East.
The Sykes-Picot Agreement:
In understanding the impact of this agreement, it should be understood that of all the most advanced regions of the Arab lands, Britain and France were to have either full control over them or a sphere of influence within them. Arabia, the region that was the least advanced, was to be given its independence from foreign rule. It must also be understood that all nations take actions that are considered to be in best interests of their national security, National security is based on physical security -- security of national boundaries, colonies" dependencies, etc. It is also based on economic security. All nations determine what must be done to provide economic stability for the peoples within their borders, or within regions that are vital to their economic security. A nation's foreign policy is then based on this.
Important: Consider how these agreements conflict with the Husayn-McMahon understandings. Read carefully the text describing what the British want left: out of the Arab nation in the Syrian area. Does it say 'west of Damascus' or 'south of Damascus?' Notice where Jerusalem is - that is the area of Palestine. Is there room for misunderstanding between the British and the Arabs? Analyze how each side would be thinking.
The Balfour Declaration:
At the time the Balfour Declaration was issued, Palestine or the Holy Land, was not a geographically or politically defined region. The Ottoman government had not organized it as .a separate unit for administrative purposes, within the empire. Palestine included territory vaguely understood to be south of Damascus and northeast from the Sinai Peninsula, including what is today known as Israel and Jordan. Boundaries between Palestine and Arabia were also vague.
Based on a British census estimate in 1918, the constant inhabitants of Palestine were 700,000 Arabs and 56,000 Jews. (30) The Jews mainly lived in Jerusalem. Some were, from families that had existed there since before the Diaspora (scattering) and after the last desperate revolt against the Romans in 135 CE Some had remained after the Babylonia Captivity in the 7th century B.C., when the King of Judea and many of his followers were captured and taken to Babylonia.
But many of the 700,000 Arabs claimed that their families had lived in Jerusalem and Palestine since before the time of Moses. They claimed they were there when Moses led the .Jews out of bondage in Egypt and came into this 'promised land.'
After Jews had been scattered, because of the' Diaspora, they found new homes along with new forms of persecution. Over 600,000 had fled to the United States after massacres in Russia and had succeeded in establishing rich and influential communities. Even so, many German or Russian Jewish writers believed the only true security for Jews was a homeland where the culture, religion, language, and physical safety could be insured. That was to be Palestine. The British government supported these efforts of these influential Jews for many reasons. One was tor reasons of national security. A Jewish Palestine, supported by Britain, would act as a guard for the Suez Canal, the British life-line 'to its colonies in the East.
The Sykes-Picot Agreement:
In understanding the impact of this agreement, it should be understood that of all the most advanced regions of the Arab lands, Britain and France were to have either full control over them or a sphere of influence within them. Arabia, the region that was the least advanced, was to be given its independence from foreign rule. It must also be understood that all nations take actions that are considered to be in best interests of their national security, National security is based on physical security -- security of national boundaries, colonies" dependencies, etc. It is also based on economic security. All nations determine what must be done to provide economic stability for the peoples within their borders, or within regions that are vital to their economic security. A nation's foreign policy is then based on this.
Important: Consider how these agreements conflict with the Husayn-McMahon understandings. Read carefully the text describing what the British want left: out of the Arab nation in the Syrian area. Does it say 'west of Damascus' or 'south of Damascus?' Notice where Jerusalem is - that is the area of Palestine. Is there room for misunderstanding between the British and the Arabs? Analyze how each side would be thinking.
Balfour Declaration & Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916)
![Picture](/uploads/1/2/2/0/12207396/published/1916-sykes-picot-agreement_5.gif)
The Balfour declaration pledged British support for a Jewish Homeland in Palestine. The. rights, of the existing non-jewish population would be respected. It was published In November 1'9171SI statement of British government policy. It was issued as a letter from the British Foreign Secretary, Arthur James Balfour, to I leading British Jew, Lord Rothschild
The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 was a decision to divide the whole of Iraq and Syria into spheres of British and French control or influence. Jerusalem and part of Palestine was to have some form of international administration. This secret British -French-Russian agreement was reached in May 1916. It was made public in late 1917 by the new Bolshevik government in Russia. The Communists passed copies of the secret agreement to the Turks. The Turks passed them to the Arabs.
It was agreed that certain Arab regions were to be under direct French or British rule. Other regions were to be divided into spheres of influence, in which the holders were to have "prior rights over local resources and loans" and to "furnish foreign advisers and officials." Other powers were excluded from any rights in the old Turkish empire, including the new Bolshevik government.
The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 was a decision to divide the whole of Iraq and Syria into spheres of British and French control or influence. Jerusalem and part of Palestine was to have some form of international administration. This secret British -French-Russian agreement was reached in May 1916. It was made public in late 1917 by the new Bolshevik government in Russia. The Communists passed copies of the secret agreement to the Turks. The Turks passed them to the Arabs.
- Balfour Declaration - His Majesty's Government views with favor the establishment in Palestine of a Na1tional Home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavors to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political Status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.
- Sykes-Picot Agreement 1916 - France was to have the coast of Syria as far south as Acre, and interior land stretching to the Tigris River. Great Britain was to have the Mediterranean ports of Acre and Haifa, and a portion of Mesopota-mia between Baghdad and the Persian Gulf.
It was agreed that certain Arab regions were to be under direct French or British rule. Other regions were to be divided into spheres of influence, in which the holders were to have "prior rights over local resources and loans" and to "furnish foreign advisers and officials." Other powers were excluded from any rights in the old Turkish empire, including the new Bolshevik government.
Simulation: round 3 |
The Treaty of Sevres & The Treaty of Laussane
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![Picture](/uploads/1/2/2/0/12207396/published/csm-2-paris-bc9ea4c4ed_2.jpg)
Background:
The Treaty of Sevres (August 1920):
In 1917, the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies, but did not declare war on the Ottoman Empire. The stalemate in Europe was broken. By this time, the Allies had already achieved some important victories against the Ottoman Empire. Baghdad fell in the spring of 1917 to a British army. They captured Jerusalem in 1917 and moved on into northern Syria in the following year to take Damascus. Faysal, son of Sharif Husayn, was allowed to enter Damascus first as the victor and was received amid much rejoicing. He was accepted as the King of the Syrians. But only briefly.
The Turks were now ready to admit defeat and agreed to sign an armistice on October 30, 1 S118. While a peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire was being drawn up, Arabia, Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia were occupied by Allied troops. Anatolia was occupied by French, Italian and Greek forces. The British army had an occupation force of 1,084,000 men in Syria and Mesopotamia.
At the Paris Peace Conference, the Versailles Treaty with Germany was written first. In writing that treaty, the Allies created the League of Nations. The Covenant of the League of Nation was incorporated into the treaty as Part I. Article 22 of the Covenant provided for the establishment of a system of mandates. The former territories of the Turkish Ottoman Empire were made 'A' Class Mandates, which meant they would soon become independent.
Faysal, Sharif Husayn's third son, was to be named the King of Syria. But, the French refused to accept him. Faysal then appealed to the United States, reminding Wilson of his statement in the Fourteen Points of the 'right to self-determination.' He proposed that a commission be sent to Syria to find out what the people wanted. The French and British did not want this; nonetheless, the American appointees went to investigate.
The King-Crane report acknowledged that the people of Syria did not want the Mandate system but did understand that they needed some kind of outside assistance, The Syrians suggested that the assistance come from the United States, and secondly, from Britain. Under no circumstances did the people of Syria want France. They also wanted Faysal as their king. As to Palestine as a Jewish homeland, they did not object to the plan as originally intended; however, they were now convinced that the Zionists wished to displace the non-Jewish inhabitants. The Allies ignored the report.
The Treaty of Lusanne (July 1923):
Throughout 1920, Kemal, better known as Ataturk (Father of the Turks), had to reorganize the army, try to restructure the government, and to push back the Greeks. The Greek armies, after occupying Eastern Thrace and eastern Anatolia in 1920, had been moving further into the interior. They were stopped by the new Turkish army. In 1922, the Turks reoccupied Izmir and the city went up 'in flames. Many people were killed, with much of the blame placed on the Greeks. The time was ripe to end finally the war between the Allies and Turkey, since the Treaty of Sevres had never gone into effect The Lausanne Conference was called for 1923. A new, more dynamic nation had emerged from the dismembered Ottoman Empire. A confident Turkey faced the European powers.
At Lausanne, the question of Turkish sovereignty in the Dardanelles and the land areas surrounding the waterways, was in question. Turkey went along with the Allies in allowing free access except in time of war and demilitarizing the coasts along the waterways. These agreements were changed in 1936. Turkish sovereignty in the Dardanelles was recognized once again.
The Greeks returned four islands to Turkey, granted to them in 1920. Two of the four were close to the entrance to the Dardanelles. Turkey agreed to demilitarize these islands and respect the rights of the Greek inhabitants. The Dodecanese, with its 90% Greek population remained under Italian control. Cyprus with its 80% Greek population was annexed by the British. Ultimately, Cyprus and the Dodecanese would go to Greece. In 1960, Cyprus would become independent and face new problems.
Armenia, the region of Anatolia that had been set aside by Allies for a new Armenian homeland, was abandoned to Turkey. Originally the region was to have been held as a mandate by the United States. When the United States Senate failed to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, it also failed to join the League of Nations. This ended the plan for an Armenian mandate under the protection of the United States. Even so, the Armenians enjoyed a brief two year period of independence from 1918-1920. Then, they were once more a minority people. Turkey gave the city of Batumi to the new U.S.S.R. and got back Kars, thus setting the eastern boundary.
There was to be no separate Kurdistan either. Kurdish self-rule had also fallen by the wayside. The south border, that had earlier been pushed north, close to Urfa, under the Treaty of Sevres, was established further south. Mosul was temporarily within the Turkish region; however, it was made a part of Iraq in 1926 due to the influence of Great Britain. Turkey received some compensation. However, Iraq ended up with this oil-rich region. Turkey had to come to rely on Iraq for its oil in the latter part of the 20th century.
Turkey claimed Iskenderun and Hatay (Alexandretta); Syria also claimed this region. Turkey was able to get political recognition for its large Turkish population. The Turks became the dominant political force, and the region was renamed Hatay. The Syrians disputed these actions. In 1939, by political arrangement with France which had the region as a mandate, Hatay was annexed by Turkey. Syria has never recognized this annexation and still claims the region, including on all maps as a part of Syria.
The Treaty of Sevres (August 1920):
In 1917, the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies, but did not declare war on the Ottoman Empire. The stalemate in Europe was broken. By this time, the Allies had already achieved some important victories against the Ottoman Empire. Baghdad fell in the spring of 1917 to a British army. They captured Jerusalem in 1917 and moved on into northern Syria in the following year to take Damascus. Faysal, son of Sharif Husayn, was allowed to enter Damascus first as the victor and was received amid much rejoicing. He was accepted as the King of the Syrians. But only briefly.
The Turks were now ready to admit defeat and agreed to sign an armistice on October 30, 1 S118. While a peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire was being drawn up, Arabia, Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia were occupied by Allied troops. Anatolia was occupied by French, Italian and Greek forces. The British army had an occupation force of 1,084,000 men in Syria and Mesopotamia.
At the Paris Peace Conference, the Versailles Treaty with Germany was written first. In writing that treaty, the Allies created the League of Nations. The Covenant of the League of Nation was incorporated into the treaty as Part I. Article 22 of the Covenant provided for the establishment of a system of mandates. The former territories of the Turkish Ottoman Empire were made 'A' Class Mandates, which meant they would soon become independent.
Faysal, Sharif Husayn's third son, was to be named the King of Syria. But, the French refused to accept him. Faysal then appealed to the United States, reminding Wilson of his statement in the Fourteen Points of the 'right to self-determination.' He proposed that a commission be sent to Syria to find out what the people wanted. The French and British did not want this; nonetheless, the American appointees went to investigate.
The King-Crane report acknowledged that the people of Syria did not want the Mandate system but did understand that they needed some kind of outside assistance, The Syrians suggested that the assistance come from the United States, and secondly, from Britain. Under no circumstances did the people of Syria want France. They also wanted Faysal as their king. As to Palestine as a Jewish homeland, they did not object to the plan as originally intended; however, they were now convinced that the Zionists wished to displace the non-Jewish inhabitants. The Allies ignored the report.
The Treaty of Lusanne (July 1923):
Throughout 1920, Kemal, better known as Ataturk (Father of the Turks), had to reorganize the army, try to restructure the government, and to push back the Greeks. The Greek armies, after occupying Eastern Thrace and eastern Anatolia in 1920, had been moving further into the interior. They were stopped by the new Turkish army. In 1922, the Turks reoccupied Izmir and the city went up 'in flames. Many people were killed, with much of the blame placed on the Greeks. The time was ripe to end finally the war between the Allies and Turkey, since the Treaty of Sevres had never gone into effect The Lausanne Conference was called for 1923. A new, more dynamic nation had emerged from the dismembered Ottoman Empire. A confident Turkey faced the European powers.
At Lausanne, the question of Turkish sovereignty in the Dardanelles and the land areas surrounding the waterways, was in question. Turkey went along with the Allies in allowing free access except in time of war and demilitarizing the coasts along the waterways. These agreements were changed in 1936. Turkish sovereignty in the Dardanelles was recognized once again.
The Greeks returned four islands to Turkey, granted to them in 1920. Two of the four were close to the entrance to the Dardanelles. Turkey agreed to demilitarize these islands and respect the rights of the Greek inhabitants. The Dodecanese, with its 90% Greek population remained under Italian control. Cyprus with its 80% Greek population was annexed by the British. Ultimately, Cyprus and the Dodecanese would go to Greece. In 1960, Cyprus would become independent and face new problems.
Armenia, the region of Anatolia that had been set aside by Allies for a new Armenian homeland, was abandoned to Turkey. Originally the region was to have been held as a mandate by the United States. When the United States Senate failed to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, it also failed to join the League of Nations. This ended the plan for an Armenian mandate under the protection of the United States. Even so, the Armenians enjoyed a brief two year period of independence from 1918-1920. Then, they were once more a minority people. Turkey gave the city of Batumi to the new U.S.S.R. and got back Kars, thus setting the eastern boundary.
There was to be no separate Kurdistan either. Kurdish self-rule had also fallen by the wayside. The south border, that had earlier been pushed north, close to Urfa, under the Treaty of Sevres, was established further south. Mosul was temporarily within the Turkish region; however, it was made a part of Iraq in 1926 due to the influence of Great Britain. Turkey received some compensation. However, Iraq ended up with this oil-rich region. Turkey had to come to rely on Iraq for its oil in the latter part of the 20th century.
Turkey claimed Iskenderun and Hatay (Alexandretta); Syria also claimed this region. Turkey was able to get political recognition for its large Turkish population. The Turks became the dominant political force, and the region was renamed Hatay. The Syrians disputed these actions. In 1939, by political arrangement with France which had the region as a mandate, Hatay was annexed by Turkey. Syria has never recognized this annexation and still claims the region, including on all maps as a part of Syria.
Postscript Questions |
Answer the following questions |
- While in your role, how do you feel about the actions taken by the Allied Powers? The United States? How did you personally feel? Generally speaking, how do you think the people of the Middle East feel about the West now?
- All foreign policy is based on national security and self-interest. Based on what was happening in the war in Europe and other conditions in the early 1900's, what justifications could one use for these Allied actions? Are they reasonable?
- In which regions and in what ways did these actions raise the level of frustration and anger of the people of the Middle East?
- Is there any relationship between the high levels marked on the "Fever Charts" and the outbreak of actual hostility and conflict in this half of the century?